Wolf: A carnivorous mammal, chiefly of Northern regions, related to, and resembling the dog. One regarded as predatory, rapacious, and fierce. To eat greedily or voraciously.
The wolf is often thought of as a pack animal, but in many fairy tales, myths, and stories, the creature is shown to act independently. The wolf appears as a creature in vicious pursuit, and as an accompaniment to other companions in battle. It is also a fierce creature on the loose, such as a wild beast or monster that must be caught and slain. In the well-known tale of Little Red Riding-hood, the wolf does not use aggression or the numbers of a pack to intimidate the girl, he uses cunning and treachery to fool her. In tales of old, the creature reaches monstrous sizes in growth and scale that would be unheard of today.
Norse Myth: In the work by H.A. Guerber, Myths of the Norsemen from the Eddas and Sagas, the wolf appears in a number of sections;
The Wolves Skoll and Hait
"As soon as the gods became aware of this beautiful being's existence they provided a chariot for him also, drawn by the resplendent white steed Skin-faxi (shining mane), from whose mane bright beams of light shone forth in every direction, illuminating all the world, and bringing light and gladness to all."
The wolves are presented as predators like sharks, sleepless and relentless, who wished to cloak the world in darkness;
"But as evil always treads close upon the footsteps of the good, hoping to destroy it, the ancient inhabitants of the Northern regions imagined that both Sun and Moon were incessantly pursued by the fierce wolves Skoll(repulsion) and Hati(hatred), whose sole aim was to overtake and swallow the brilliant objects before them, so that the world might again be enveloped in its primaeval darkness."
The wolves, who long for destruction, much in the same way, as the evil dragon Nidhoggr wishes for the collapse and death of the cosmic tree Yggdrasil;
"At times, they said, the wolves overtook and tried to swallow their prey, thus producing an eclipse of the radiant orbs. Then the terrified people raised such a deafening clamour that the wolves, frightened by the noise, hastily dropped them. Thus rescued, Sun and Moon resumed their course, fleeing more rapidly than before, the hungry monsters rushing along in their wake, lusting for the time when their efforts would prevail and the end of the world would come. For the Northern nations believe that as their gods had sprung from an alliance between the divine element (Borr) and the mortal (Bestla), they were infinite, and doomed to perish with the world they had made."
Guerber writes of the two pets that belonged to Odin, in addition to his two crows which acted as a second form of sight for the God, he possessed two fierce wolves as well;
"At his feet crouched two wolves, or hunting hounds, Geri and Freki, animals which were therefore considered sacred to him, and of good omen if met by the way. Odin always fed these wolves with his own hands from meat set before him. He required no food at all himself, and seldom tasted anything except the sacred mead."
The wolf known as Fenris was birthed by a hideous giantess named Angur-boda, his two other siblings were Hel, the goddess of death, and Iomungandr, a foul serpent. Odin sought to destroy the three creatures when their existence came to light, he disposed of the serpent in the depths of the oceans, and he sent Hel into Nifl-heim, where she was to rule over the nine destitute worlds of the deceased. And the wolf he lured back to Asgard hoping to tame the creature. Guerber writes;
"Odin resolved to lead Fenris to Asgard, where he hoped, by kindly treatment, to make him gentle and tractable. But the gods one and all shrank in dismay when they saw the wolf, and none dared approach to give him food except Tyr, whom nothing daunted. Seeing that Fenris daily increased in size, strength, voracity, and fierceness, the gods assembled in council to deliberate how they might best dispose of him. They unanimously decided that as it would desecrate their peace-steads to slay him, they would bind him fast so that he could work them no harm."
"With that purpose in view, they obtained a strong chain named Laeding, and then playfully proposed to Fenris to bind this about him as a test of his vaunted strength. Confident in his ability to release himself, Fenris patiently allowed them to bind him fast, and when all stood aside, with a mighty effort, he stretched himself and easily burst the chain asunder."
"Concealing their chagrin, the gods were loud in praise of his strength, but they next produced a much stronger fetter, Droma, which after some persuasion, the wolf allowed them to fasten around him as before. Again, a short, sharp struggle sufficed to burst this bond, and it is proverbial in the North to use the figurative expressions, 'to get loose out of Laeding,' and 'dash out of Droma,' whenever great difficulties have to be surmounted."
The Gods got hold of a magical article known as Gleipnir, a silken rope designed by the Dark Elves, it was gifted to Skirnir, and it was said that nothing could break the rope, and the more restraint that was imposed upon it, the stronger the rope would become. This is how they were able to subdue the wolf Fenris, Guerber writes;
"Armed with this bond, called Gleipnir, the gods went with Fenris to the Island of Lyngvi, in the middle of Lake Amsvartnir, and again proposed to test his strength. But although Fenris had grown still stronger, he mistrusted the bond which looked so slight. He, therefore, refused to allow himself to be bound, unless one of the Aesir would consent to to put his hand in his mouth, and leave it there, as a pledge of good faith, and that no magic arts were to be used against him."
The gods successfully bind the enormous wolf, but not without a cost;
"The gods heard the decision with dismay, and all drew back except Tyr, who, seeing that the others would not venture to comply with this condition, boldly stepped forward and thrust his hand between the monster's jaws. The gods now fastened Gleipnir securely around Fenris's neck and paws, and when they saw that his utmost efforts to free himself were fruitless, they shouted and laughed with glee. Tyr, however, could not share their joy, for the wolf, finding himself captive, bit off the god's hand at the wrist, which since then has been known as the wolf's joint."
Guerber writes of the wolf's imprisonment, and how in the creature's dormancy, Fenris waits to enact revenge.
"The gods, in spite of the wolf's struggles, drew the end of the fetter Gelgia through the rock Gioll, and fastened it to the boulder Thviti, which was sunk deep in the ground. Opening wide his fearful jaws, Fenris uttered such terrible howls that the gods, to silence him, thrust a sword into his mouth, the hilt resting upon his lower jaw and the point against his palate. The blood then began to pour out in such streams that it formed a great river, called Von. The wolf was destined to remain thus chained fast until the last day, when he would burst his bonds and would be free to avenge his wrongs."
Romand & Greek Myth: Edith Hamilton writes in her book Mythology of the figure of Lycaon, the King of Arcadia, was transformed into a wolf because of his offence towards the gods, he had set human flesh before the table of Zeus when the god was his guest and this greatly insulted him.
Apollo was also considered the Wolf-god, Hamilton writes; "Anther name often given him was 'the Lycian,' variously explained as meaning Wolf-God,God of Light, and God of Lycia."
The believed founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus were said to have been abandoned by Mars and raised and suckled from a wolf mother.
Epic of Gilgamesh: In the work Myths from Mesopotamia, translated by Dalley, one of the earliest examples in writing can be found of a man changing into a wolf, which is mentioned in the exchange between Ishtar and Gilgamesh, in Tablet VI;
"You loved the shepherd, herdsman, and chief
shepherd
Who was always heaping the glowing ashes for you,
And cooked ewe-lambs for you everyday.
But you hit him and turned him into a wolf,
His own herd-boys hunt him down
And his dogs tear at his haunches"
Sorcery and Enchantment: In the collection of stories comprised by John T. Naake, known as Slavonic Fairy Tales, he writes three tales of ware-wolves. The characters fall victim to witches or sorceresses that cast horrible spells upon their victims, where they are forced to lead lives in the accursed state of back-and-forth constant transformation in between the human and wolf state. Provided is the first Polish tale from the stories;
Men-Wolves
"On a beautiful hill near the river Vistula, a company of young countrymen and countrywomen came together to celebrate the harvest-home with music and dancing. There was plenty to eat and drink, and they helped themselves freely. In the midst of the merriment, a terrible cry was heard which drowned the music and the jovial songs.
The Young people left off dancing, ran to the spot whence the cry came, and found with horror that an enormous wolf had seized one of the handsomest girls of the village in his mouth, and was dragging her away. The most courageous among the youths followed and soon overtook the wolf; but the furious monster, his mouth foaming with rage, having dropped his prey on the ground, stood over it ready to fight.
The men, unarmed and terrified, knew not what to do. Some of them ran home to fetch firearms; the rest, quite unnerved, stood aloof, and awaited their return. The wolf seeing the fear of those who remained, again seized the poor girl, and disappeared with her into the adjoining forest.
Fifty years has passed away since the occurrence of this terrible scene. Another feast was being held on the same hill, and an old grey-headed man approached the merry-makers. The people invited him to join in their revels, but he, gloomy and reserved, sat down to drink the proffered glass of brandy in silence.
A peasant, of nearly the same age as the guest, approached, saluted him, and tried to engage him in conversation. This stranger, after looking at him for some time, demanded with emotion: 'Is it you, indeed, John?'
The countryman then recognized in the stranger his elder brother, who had been lost fifty years before. The wondering of peasants soon surrounded the old visitor, who told them how, having been changed by a witch, he had carried his betrothed away from that same hill during a harvest-home festival; how he had lived with her in the forest for a year, whence she had died.
'From that moment,' he continued, 'savage and furious, I attacked everyone, and destroyed everything I fell in with. The blood I then shedI cannot even now wipe away.'
Here he showed his hands covered in bloodstains.
'It is now four years since, again changed to human shape, I have wandered from place to place. I wished to see you all once more-to see the hut and village where I was born, and grew up to be a man. After that-Ah, woe is me! Fly! Fly from me! I shall become a wolf again!'
As soon as he had uttered these words, he was changed into a wolf. He howled piteously, rushed past the astonished peasants, and disappeared in the neighbouring forest forever."
In many forests, there can be found mythical denizens that dwelt within. In Sweden, there were women who were believed to have supernatural control over the wolves. Alexander Porteous writes in his work The Forest in Folklore and Mythology;
"In Sweden, old women who dwelt in the forest were credited with powers of sorcery, and were believed to have the wolves under their control. Thus they were known as Vargamor or Wolf-crones."
Animal Sacrifice: In the written work The Golden Bough by James Frazer, in his chapter Killing the Divine Animal, he writes of the many different animals that were butchered and slaughtered in the name of sacrifice;
"When the Kwaikutl Indians of British Columbia have slain a wolf they lay the carcass on a blanket and take out the heart, of which every person that helped killed the beast must eat four morsels. Then they wail over the body, saying, 'Woe! our great friend!' After that, they cover the carcass with a blanket and bury it. A bow or gun that killed a wolf is regarded as unlucky, and the owner gives it away. These Indians believe that the slaying of a wolf creates a scarcity of game."
Frazer writes of the wolf almost as a sacred being, or a divinity, and for someone to kill a wolf would suggest a dire reason behind it;
"When the Tinneh Indians of Central Alaska have killed a wolf or a wolverine, the carcass is brought into the camp or village with great pomp. The people go forth to meet it, saying, 'The chief is coming.' Then the body is carried into a hut and propped up in a sitting posture; the medicine man spreads before it a copious banquet, to which every family in the village has contributed of its best. When the dead animal is supposed to have satisfied his hunger, the men consume the remains of the feast, but no woman is allowed to participate in what has been thus offered to the wolf or the wolverine. No ordinary Cherokee dares to kill a wolf, if he can possibly help it; for he believes that the kindred of the slain beast would surely avenge its death, and that the weapon of which the deed had been done would be quite useless for the future, unless it were cleaned and exorcised by a medicine man. However, certain persons who know the proper rites of atonement for such a crime can kill wolves with impunity, and they are sometimes hired to do so by the people who have suffered from the raids of wolves on their cattle or their fish traps. The professional wolf-killer prays to the animal whom he has bereaved of life, and seeks to avert the vengeance of the other wolves by laying the blame of the slaughter on the people of another settlement. To purify the gun which has perpetrated the murder, he unscrews the barrel, inserts into it seven small sour-wood rods which have been heated in the fire, and then allows the barrel and its contents to lie in a running stream till morning."
Frazer writes also of the transference of blame that occurred when a wolf was killed;
"When the Chuckchees of north-eastern Siberia have killed a wolf, they hold a festival, at which they cry, 'Wolf, be not angry with us. It was not we who killed you, it was the Russians who destroyed you.' In ancient Athens, any man who killed a wolf had to bury it by subscription."
And furthermore;
"When a party of Koryak have killed a bear or a wolf, they skin the beast and dress one of themselves in the skin. Then they dance round the skin-clad man, saying that it was not they who killed the animal, but someone else, generally a Russian."
There is an unusual form of guilt at play here, and it has attached itself to the aftermath of such violent actions in strange forms of expression, which indicates that killing, murder, and sacrifice were not viewed as something wholly indifferent. There was clearly a conscience that was felt and imposed at the group level, otherwise, such ceremonies would not need to take place.
Fables: From the Signet version of Aesop's Fables, edited by Jack Zipes;
The Wolf and the Lamb
While lapping water at the head of a running brook, a wolf noticed a stray lamb some distance down the stream. Once he made up his mind to attack her, he began thinking of a plausible excuse for making her his prey.
"Scoundrel!" he cried, running up to her. "How dare you muddle the water that I am drinking!"
"Please forgive me," replied the lamb meekly, "but I don't see how I could have done anything to the water since it runs from you to me, not from me to you."
"Be that as it may," the wolf retorted, "but you know it was only a year ago that you called me many bad names behind my back."
"Oh, sir," said the lamb, "I wasn't even born a year ago."
"Well," the wolf asserted, "if it wasn't you, it was your mother, and that's all the same to me. Anyway, its no use trying to argue me out of my supper."
And without another word, he fell upon the poor helpless lamb and tore her to pieces.
The Lamb and the Wolf
Pursued by a wolf, a lamb took refuge in a temple. When the wolf cried out to the lamb that the priest would slay him if he caught him, the lamb responded, "So be it. I'd rather be sacrificed in the temple than be devoured by you!"
The Wolf and the Sheep
After being attacked by some dogs, a wolf was maimed and could not move. Therefore, when a sheep passed by, he asked her to fetch him some water from a nearby stream. "If you bring me something to drink," he said, "I'll soon be able to find meat for myself."
"Yes," said the sheep. "I have no doubt that you will, for if I come close enough with the water, you'd certainly make me provide you with the meat as well."
The Wolves and the Sheep
Once the wolves sent an embassy to the sheep to make a peace treaty between them for the future.
"Why should we continue such deadly strife?" the wolves asked. "The dogs are the cause of it all. They're constantly barking at us and provoking us. Send them away, and there will no longer be any obstacle to our eternal friendship and peace."
The silly sheep listened, and the dogs were dismissed. As a result, the flock was deprived of their best protectors, and the sheep became an easy prey for their treacherous enemies.
The Nurse and the Wolf
While roving about in search of food, a wolf passed a door where a child was crying and his nurse was chiding him. As the wolf stood listening, he heard her say, "If you don't stop crying this instant, I'll put you outside and the wolf will get you."
Thinking the old woman would be as good as her word, the wolf waited quietly outside the house expecting a splendid supper. But when it grew dark, and the child became quiet, he heard the nurse, who was now fondling the child, say, "That's a good boy. Now if that naughty wolf comes, we'll beat him to death!"
Disappointed and mortified, the wolf thought it was now high time to be going home. Indeed, hungry as only a wolf can be, he went along muttering to himself, "This comes from listening to people who say one thing and mean another!"
The Wolf and the Lion
One day, after a wolf had killed a sheep and was carrying it home to his den, he met a lion, who immediately grabbed the sheep from the wolf and dragged it away. Standing at a safe distance from the lion, the wolf howled at the lion and told him that he should be ashamed of himself for robbing him.
The lion laughed and said, "I suppose, then, that it was your good friend the shepherd who gave you the sheep in the first place."
The Wolf and the Goat
A wolf saw a goat grazing on the top of a high cliff where he could not get at her. Pretending to be concerned for her safety, the wolf advised her to move down. "You might lose your footing at that dizzy height," he said. "Besides, the grass is much sweeter and more plentiful here below."
"I'm sorry I can't oblige you," answered the goat, "but the grass isn't always greener on the other side of the hill, especially when you intend to make a meal out of me there."